Most frequent asked Questions on Entreprenuership by my students in class.

a)Using relevant examples make an argument for people to become entrepreneurs in Uganda
Definition of entrepreneurs (5 marks)
The word entrepreneurship is a mixed blessing. On the positive side, it connotes a special, innate ability to sense and act on opportunity, combining out-of-the-box thinking with a unique brand of determination to create or bring about something new to the world.

Entrepreneur is associated with starting a business. However this is a very loose application of a term. The term “entrepreneur” originated in French economics as early as the 17th and 18th centuries. In French, it means someone who undertakes a significant project or activity. More specifically, it came to be used to identify the venturesome individuals who stimulated economic progress by finding new and better ways of doing things. The French economist most commonly credited with giving the term this particular meaning is Jean Baptiste Say. Say put it this way,
“The entrepreneur shifts economic resources out of an area of lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield.” Entrepreneurs create value.

In the 20th century, the economist most closely associated with the term was Joseph Schumpeter.
He described entrepreneurs as the innovators who drive the “creative-destructive” process of capitalism. In his words, “the function of entrepreneurs is to reform or revolutionize the pattern of production.”
Entrepreneurs can do this in many ways:
• “by exploiting an invention or, more generally, an untried technological possibility for producing a new commodity or producing an old one in a new way,
• by opening up a new source of supply of materials or a new outlet for products,
• by reorganizing an industry and so on.”
Schumpeter’s entrepreneurs are the change agents in the economy. By serving new markets or creating new ways of doing things, they move the economy forward. It is true that many of the entrepreneurs that Say and Schumpeter have in mind serve their function by starting new, profit-seeking business ventures, but starting a business is not the essence of entrepreneurship. Though other economists may have used the term with various nuances, the Say-Schumpeter tradition that identifies entrepreneurs as the catalysts and innovators behind economic progress has served as the foundation for the contemporary use of this concept.

Business expert Peter Drucker (1909-2005) took this idea further, describing the entrepreneur as someone who actually searches for change, responds to it, and exploits change as an opportunity. A quick look at changes in communications - from typewriters to personal computers to the Internet - illustrates these ideas.

Discussion of reasons for the importance of entrepreneurs in Uganda ( 20 marks)Individual benefits (5 marks)
What leads a person to strike out on his own and start a business? Perhaps a person has been laid off once or more. Sometimes a person;
• Is frustrated with his or her current job and doesn't see any better career prospects on the horizon.
• Realizes that his or her job is in jeopardy.
• A firm may be contemplating cutbacks that could end a job or limit career or salary prospects.
• Perhaps a person already has been passed over for promotion.
• Perhaps a person sees no opportunities in existing businesses for someone with his or her interests and skills.
• Some people are actually repulsed by the idea of working for someone else. They object to a system where reward is often based on seniority rather than accomplishment, or where they have to conform to a corporate culture.
• Other people decide to become entrepreneurs because they are disillusioned by the bureaucracy or politics involved in getting ahead in an established business or profession.
• Some are tired of trying to promote a product, service, or way of doing business that is outside the mainstream operations of a large company.
In contrast, some people are attracted to entrepreneurship by the advantages of starting a business. These include:
• Entrepreneurs are their own bosses. They make the decisions. They choose whom to do business with and what work they will do. They decide what hours to work, as well as what to pay and whether to take vacations.
• Entrepreneurship offers a greater possibility of achieving significant financial rewards than working for someone else.
• It provides the ability to be involved in the total operation of the business, from concept to design and creation, from sales to business operations and customer response.
• It offers the prestige of being the person in charge.
• It gives an individual the opportunity to build equity, which can be kept, sold, or passed on to the next generation.
• Entrepreneurship creates an opportunity for a person to make a contribution. Most new entrepreneurs help the local economy. A few - through their innovations - contribute to society as a whole. One example is entrepreneur Steve Jobs, who co-founded Apple in 1976, and ignited the subsequent revolution in desktop computers.

Community/societal benefits (15 marks)

The Impact of Entrepreneurs
The importance of entrepreneurship in general and social entrepreneurship in particular is often overlooked. Social entrepreneurship is important to economic development policies because it can play a vital role to the progress of societies and deliver vital value to societal and economic development.
• Employment Development- The first major economic value that social entrepreneurship creates is the most obvious one because it is shared with entrepreneurs and businesses alike: job and employment creation.
A second dimension of employment development is almost unique to social enterprises; social enterprises provide employment opportunities and job training to segments of society at an employment disadvantage, such as the long-term unemployed, the disabled, the homeless, at-risk youth and gender-discriminated women Some social enterprises act as an “intermediate between unemployment and the open labor market”. Re-integration of disadvantaged groups into the labor market is both socially and financially beneficial for the community at large. In the case of the Grameen Bank, the economic situation of six million disadvantaged women micro - entrepreneurs were improved

• Innovation / New Goods and Services-Social enterprises develop and apply innovation important to social and economic development and develop new goods and services. social-purpose enterprises … bring new responses to unmet social needs can be measured as the provision of new goods and services that are complementary to those delivered by the public and private sectors and accessible to a greater number of citizens” Issues addressed include some of the biggest societal problems such as HIV /Aids, mental ill-health, illiteracy, crime and drug abuses which, importantly, are confronted in innovative ways. Some of these new approaches in some cases are transferable to the public sector e.g. home -based care model for AIDS patients which later changed government health policy. These new kinds of organizations as “hotbeds of ideas and experiments, and they are able to get innovative policies adopted at the central, regional or local government levels”
• Social Capital-Next to economic capital one of the most important values created by social entrepreneurship is social capital. Although the term social capital again is not clearly defined, it is usually understood as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition" Social capital is the most important form of capital created by social entrepreneurs because economic partnerships require shared values, trust and a culture of cooperation which is all part of social capital. Examples include the success of the German and Japanese economies, which have their roots in long-term relationships and the ethics of cooperation, in both essential innovation and industrial development. The World Bank also sees social capital as critical for poverty alleviation and sustainable human and economic development. Existent bonding social capital within groups is reinforced by bridging/linking social capital catalysed by social entrepreneurs” The “virtuous circle of social capital”, starts with the initial endowment of social capital by the social entrepreneur. Building up a network of trust and cooperation and getting more partners involved enables access to physical (e.g. buildings), financial and human capital. Organizational capital is created, and, when the social enterprise is successful, more social capital such as in the form of a re - opened hospital is created:

• Equity Promotion-Another aspect is that social entrepreneurship fosters a more equitable society which is an objective for most economic development policies. Complementing the equity promoting activities of public agencies and NGOs, social enterprises address social issues and try to achieve ongoing sustainable impact through their social mission rather than purely profit-maximization The Grameen Bank and its support for disadvantaged women is an example of how social entrepreneurs support equity-promoting policies. Other examples include reintegrating disadvantaged groups into the labor market and providing affordable goods and services to the poor. Social entrepreneur have helped thousands of low-income high-school students to get into tertiary education.


Or
b) Using Dees (1998) arguments, discuss how social entrepreneurs can play the role of change agents in Uganda
Definition of social entrepreneurs (5 marks)
• Social entrepreneurship is seen as not-for-profit initiatives in search of alternative funding strategies or management schemes to create social value (Austin, Stevenson& Wei-Skiller, 2003; Boschee, 1998)
• Social entrepreneurship understood as the socially responsible practice of commercial business engaged in cross-sector partnerships (Sagawa & Segal, 2000; Waddock, 1998)
• Social entrepreneurship as a means to alleviate social problems and catalyze social transformation ( Alvord et al.., 2004; Ashoka Innovators, 2000)

• Alvord, Brown & Letts (2004) Social entrepreneurship creates innovative solutions to immediate social problems and mobilizes the ideas, capacities, resources and social arrangements required for sustainable social transformation.

• Saiid Business School (2005) Social entrepreneurship may be defined as a professional, innovative and sustainable approach to systemic change that resolves social market failures and grasps opportunities.

• IESE Business School (2005) Social entrepreneurship is a process involving the innovative use and combination of resources to pursue opportunities to catalyze social change and /or address social needs.

• Mort, Weerawardena, & Carnegie (2002) Social entrepreneurship is a multi-dimensional construct involving the expression of entrepreneurially virtuous behaviour to achieve the social mission , a coherent unity of purpose and action in the face of moral complexity , the ability to recognize social value –creating opportunities and key decision-making characteristics of innovativeness, proactiveness and risk-taking.

• Social entrepreneurship can be viewed as a process of creating value by combining resources in new ways (Stevenson, Roberts & Grousbeck, 1989; Schumpeter, 1934).

• Haugh & Tracey (2004) Social enterprises are businesses that trade for social purpose. They combine innovation, entrepreneurship and social purpose to seek to be financially sustainable by generating revenue from trading. Their social mission prioritizes social benefit above financial profit and if and when a surplus is made, this is used to further the social aims of the beneficiary group or community and not distributed to those with a controlling interest in the enterprise.

• Dees (1994) social enterprises are private organizations dedicated to solving social problems serving the disadvantaged, providing socially important goods that were not in their judgment adequately provided by public agencies or private markets. These organizations have pursued goals that could not be measured simply by profit generation, market penetration and or voter support.
• According to Dees (1998), Social entrepreneurs play the role of change agents in the social sector, by:
o Adopting a mission to create and sustain social value (not just social private value)
o Recognizing and relentlessly pursuing new opportunities to serve that mission,
o Engaging in a process of continuous innovation, adaptation and learning,
o Acting boldly without being limited by resources currently in hand and,
o Exhibiting heightened sense of accountability to the constituencies served and for the outcomes created

Explanation of Dees (1998) argument or proposition (5 marks)

Dees (1998) -social enterprises are private organizations dedicated to solving social problems serving the disadvantaged, providing socially important goods that were not in their judgment adequately provided by public agencies or private markets. These organizations have pursued goals that could not be measured simply by profit generation, market penetration and or voter support.
Change agents in the social sector: Social entrepreneurs are the reformers and revolutionaries described by Schumpeter, but with a social mission. They make fundamental changes in the way things are done in the social sector. Their visions are bold. They attack the underlying causes of problems, rather than simply treating symptoms. They often reduce needs rather than just meeting them. They seek to create systemic changes and sustainable improvements. Though they may act locally, their actions have the potential to stimulate global improvements in their chosen arenas, whether that is education, health care, economic development, the environment, the arts, or any other social sector field.

Discussion of how social entrepreneurs can act as change agents (15 marks)
According to Dees (1998), Social entrepreneurs play the role of change agents in the social sector, by:
• Adopting a mission to create and sustain social value (not just social private value) ( 4 marks)
• Recognizing and relentlessly pursuing new opportunities to serve that mission, (4 marks)
• Engaging in a process of continuous innovation, adaptation and learning, ( 4 marks)
• Acting boldly without being limited by resources currently in hand and, ( 4 marks)
Exhibiting heightened sense of accountability to the constituencies served and for the outcomes created
Social sector leaders will exemplify these characteristics in different ways and to different degrees.

• Adopting a mission to create and sustain social value:-This is the core of what distinguishes social entrepreneurs from business entrepreneurs even from socially responsible businesses. For a social entrepreneur, the social mission is fundamental. This is a mission of social improvement that cannot be reduced to creating private benefits (financial returns or consumption benefits) for individuals. Making a profit, creating wealth, or serving the desires of customers may be part of the model, but these are means to a social end, not the end in itself. Profit is not the gauge of value creation; nor is customer satisfaction; social impact is the gauge. Social entrepreneurs look for a long-term social return on investment. Social entrepreneurs want more than a quick hit; they want to create lasting improvements. They think about sustaining the impact.
• Recognizing and relentlessly pursuing new opportunities: Where others see problems, entrepreneurs see opportunity. Social entrepreneurs are not simply driven by the perception of a social need or by their compassion, rather they have a vision of how to achieve improvement and they are determined to make their vision work. They are persistent. The models they develop and the approaches they take can, and often does, change, as the entrepreneurs learn about what works and what does not work. The key element is persistence combined with a willingness to make adjustments as one goes. Rather than giving up when an obstacle is encountered, entrepreneurs ask, “How can we surmount this obstacle? How can we make this work?”
• Engaging in a process of continuous innovation, adaptation, and learning: Entrepreneurs are innovative. They break new ground, develop new models, and pioneer new approaches. However, as Schumpeter notes, innovation can take many forms. It does not require inventing something wholly new; it can simply involve applying an existing idea in a new way or to a new situation. Entrepreneurs need not be inventors. They simply need to be creative in applying what others have invented. Their innovations may appear in how they structure their core programs or in how they assemble the resources and fund their work. On the funding side, social entrepreneurs look for innovative ways to assure that their ventures will have access to resources as long as they are creating social value. This willingness to innovate is part of the modus operandi of entrepreneurs. It is not just a one-time burst of creativity. It is a continuous process of exploring, learning, and improving. Of course, with innovation comes uncertainty and risk of failure. Entrepreneurs tend to have a high tolerance for ambiguity and learn how to manage risks for themselves and others. They treat failure of a project as a learning experience, not a personal tragedy.
• Acting boldly without being limited by resources currently in hand: Social entrepreneurs do not let their own limited resources keep them from pursuing their visions. They are skilled at doing more with less and at attracting resources from others. They use scarce resources efficiently, and they leverage their limited resources by drawing in partners and collaborating with others. They explore all resource options, from pure philanthropy to the commercial methods of the business sector. They are not bound by sector norms or traditions. They develop resource strategies that are likely to support and reinforce their social missions. They take calculated risks and manage the downside, so as to reduce the harm that will result from failure. They understand the risk tolerances of their stakeholders and use this to spread the risk to those who are better prepared to accept it.
• Exhibiting a heightened sense of accountability to the constituencies served and for the outcomes created: Because market discipline does not automatically weed out inefficient or ineffective social ventures, social entrepreneurs take steps to assure they are creating value. This means that they seek a sound understanding of the constituencies they are serving. They make sure they have correctly assessed the needs and values of the people they intend to serve and the communities in which they operate. In some cases, this requires close connections with those communities. They understand the expectations and values of their “investors,” including anyone who invests money, time, and/or expertise to help them. They seek to provide real social improvements to their beneficiaries and their communities, as well as attractive (social and/or financial) return to their investors. Creating a fit between investor values and community needs is an important part of the challenge. When feasible, social entrepreneurs create market-like feedback mechanisms to reinforce this accountability. They assess their progress in terms of social, financial, and managerial outcomes, not simply in terms of their size, outputs, or processes. They use this information to make course corrections as needed.

2. Either
a) Using practical examples familiar to you outline and comment on the process of social entreprise venture formation in society.

Stage 1. The Formation of Social Sentiments
Sentiments-including perceptions, motives and emotions, thinking and learning and complex combination of opinions and feeling that’s lead to action and judgment, and focus the individual on the pursuit of relativity permanents ends. They accidentally develop from a strong relationship with someone or something and are biased by the individual’s prior experiences. Once developed, their strength is manifested in the strong devotion individual develop towards, for example other people or ideas. Sentiments control individual’s behavior, energize them towards what has become their attention (e.g. a particular social issue), and guide their long-term individual actions. In social entrepreneurship context, social sentiments seem to turn individuals into citizens who are dissatisfied with the status quo, loyal to their values and philosophy and motivated to act in socially responsible manner. Social sentiments are formed from the complex combination of a key relationship (her relationship with nature), and predisposition traits (her capacity to experience and instill empathy and her high degree of moral judgment). Predisposition traits are those that naturally motivate the individual to take into consideration other people's needs or interests. The formation of social feelings does not automatically imply the creation of social venture. Individuals with strong social feelings may act in various sectors and in a wide variety of professions (e.g. doctors) and vocations (e.g. religious or educational). However, social feelings seem to be an important element in the process of formation of intentions to create a social venture. The decision to create a social venture is influenced by the early formation of social feelings, which are originated by a key relationship with someone or something (external factor), and predisposition traits (internal factors).

Stage 2: The entrepreneurial process:
Will power- defined as energetic determination and, "the most powerful force of human behaviour, is closely related to propensity to act . Willpower can be identified in an individual when he/she goals. This is described it as “a deep personal attachment to an intention". It's power is such that it moves an individual to act, despite adversity, lack of motivation, low energy levels, or alternative opportunities. Furthermore, willpower to inspire the individual in the face of difficulties. Willpower can result from the complex combination of motivation (create social impact, reach more people, financial, and desire for social change) with action- related traits (her tendency to do things her way, adaptation skills, and long term focus). In addition it can be displayed in particular action –oriented traits that make one feel capable of accomplishing the undertaking. They possess skills already attributed to traditional entrepreneurs, which increase their level of willpower. While individuals acts with willpower will not necessarily create a social venture, willpower is an important variable in understanding the process by which the intention to create a social venture develops. A social entrepreneur's propensity to act is influenced by the display of willpower and it is determined by the combination of the type of motivations that social entrepreneurs experience and action-oriented traits that make them feel capable of pursuing their initiatives.
 Development of skills that may contribute to entrepreneurial behavior
 Awareness - building interest in the option of starting an SE/SF (AIDA - awareness, interest, desire, action)
 Examining opportunities to fulfil needs or wants and t solve problems
 Generate ideas to satisfy the opportunities

Stage 3: Use available resources and resources to evaluate opportunities and ideas
 Assess the opportunities and ideas
 Support: – defined as access to human and material resources – that social entrepreneur are able to gather affects their perception of feasibility only after they have evaluated the amount and type of support available for the venture. Support must occur at two distinct levels (individual and organizational) if it is to have a positive influence on the social entrepreneur's perceptions of the feasibility of the venture. The level of support that social entrepreneurs obtain from stakeholders will depend on the stock of resources available in their social network, and on their ability to enhance that stock by influencing stakeholders' judgment of the venture and thus also their willingness to invest. Access to human social and material resources is a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition to develop intentions to create a social venture. The perceived feasibility of a social venture is influenced by the amount and type of support the social entrepreneur is able to gather at the individual and organizational level.

Stage 4: Plan and prepare the venture thoroughly
Opportunity Construction: Opportunities can be searched for they can be discovered. Both types of opportunity recognition require prior experience or knowledge. One does not search for what one does not know, and one cannot discover what one mind cannot perceive. A third way to recognize opportunities-- construct them: "opportunities are thus very much in the eyes of the beholder. Once the individual perceive the opportunity, he/she will experience perceptions of desirability – among other factors – if the venture meets personal preferences ( e.g. high versus low tech ) In some cases the opportunity is constructed by combining prior experience and salient events. While important, opportunity construction is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for the intention to create a social venture. The perceived desirability of a social venture is influenced by the combination of a social opportunity. The construction of a social opportunity is determined by a combination of the social entrepreneur's prior experience and salient events that help him/her to recognize it.

Stage 5: Implementation



b) Discuss some of the impacts of social entrepreneurs in Ugandan society

The Impact of Social Entrepreneurs

The importance of entrepreneurship in general and social entrepreneurship in particular is often overlooked. Social entrepreneurship is important to economic development policies because it can play a vital role to the progress of societies and deliver vital value to societal and economic development.

Employment Development: The first major economic value that social entrepreneurship creates is shared with entrepreneurs and businesses alike: job and employment creation. A study from the John Hopkins University from 1998 shows that the number of people who are employed in social enterprises in a multi-country context, ranges from one to seven percent in the selected countries.

A second dimension of employment development is almost unique to social enterprises; social enterprises provide employment opportunities and job training to segments of society at an employment disadvantage, such as the long-term unemployed, the disabled, the homeless, at-risk youth and gender-discriminated women19. Some social enterprises act as an “intermediate between unemployment and the open labor market”. Re-integration of disadvantaged groups into the labor market is both socially and financially beneficial for the community at large. In the case of Prof. Yunus and the Grameen Bank, the economic situation of six million disadvantaged women micro - entrepreneurs were improved

Innovation / New Goods and Services: Social enterprises develop and apply innovation important to social and economic development and develop new goods and services. As the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) states, “social-purpose enterprises … bring new responses to unmet social needs can be measured as the provision of new goods and services that are complementary to those delivered by the public and private sectors and accessible to a greater number of citizens” Issues addressed include some of the biggest societal problems such as HIV /Aids, mental ill-health, illiteracy, crime and drug abusers which, importantly, are confronted in innovative ways. An example showing that these new approaches in some cases are transferable to the public sector is the Brazilian social entrepreneur Veronica Khosa, who developed a home -based care model for AIDS patients which later changed government health policy. The OECD sees these new kinds of organizations as “hotbeds of ideas and experiments, and they are able to get innovative policies adopted at the central,
regional or local government levels”.

A second dimension of employment development is almost unique to social enterprises; social enterprises provide employment opportunities and job training to segments of society at an employment disadvantage, such as the long-term unemployed, the disabled, the homeless, at-risk youth and gender-discriminated women. Some social enterprises act as an “intermediate between unemployment and the open labor market”. Re-integration of disadvantaged groups into the labor market is both socially and financially beneficial for the community at large. In the case of Prof. Yunus and the Grameen Bank, the economic situation of six million disadvantaged women microentrepreneurs were improved

Social Capital: The most important value created by social entrepreneurship is social capital. Although the term social capital again is not clearly defined, it is usually understood as “ the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition". To Leadbeater (1997), social capital is the most important form of capital created by social entrepreneurs because economic partnerships require shared values, trust and a culture of cooperation which is all part of social capital. As examples he mentions the success of the German and Japanese economies, which have their roots in long-term relationships and the ethics of cooperation, in both essential innovation and industrial development. The World Bank also sees social capital as critical for poverty alleviation and sustainable human and economic development. Hasan (2005) mentions the Grameen Bank again, along with several other Asian examples, and concludes with the statement that “existent bonding social capital within groups has been reinforced by bridging/linking social capital catalysed by social entrepreneurs”.

The “virtuous circle of social capital”, starts with the initial endowment of social capital by the social entrepreneur. Building up a network of trust and cooperation and getting more partners involved enables access to physical (e.g. buildings), financial and human capital. Organizational capital is created, and, when the social enterprise is successful, more social capital such as in the form of a re - opened hospital is created:


Equity Promotion: Another aspect is that social entrepreneurship fosters a more equitable society which is an objective for most economic development policies. Complementing the equity promoting activities of public agencies and NGOs, social enterprises address social issues and try to achieve ongoing sustainable impact through their social mission rather than purely profit-maximization. Again Yunus’s Grameen Bank and its support for disadvantaged women is an example of how social entrepreneurs support equity-promoting policies. Other examples include reintegrating disadvantaged groups into the labor market and providing affordable goods and services to the poor. For instance, the American social entrepreneur J.B. Schramm has helped thousands of low-income high-school students to get into tertiary education.

Writing an essay in 12 steps

Writing an essay in 12 steps
Published on Academic Skills and Learning Centre (https://academicskills.anu.edu.au)
Writing an essay in 12 steps
By Kudasai
Created 04/01/2009 - 11:47
Writing an essay in 12 steps
Writing an essay is a messy, complex, often frustrating process that, nevertheless, can be ordered and managed in
several stages. Remember that it is usually a circular rather than a linear process, that your argument will help
develop your writing—and that the process of writing will develop your argument and your use of evidence.
1. Analyse and define the topic or question
While an essay question will always have a topic, your first hurdle is to identify and then explore the underlying
question/debate/problem within that topic that is central to your course. For example, a Political Science question
such as: “What were the causes of the Second World War?” is not asking for a list of causes that you then
describe. It is asking: in what way or to what extent did various factors contribute and how were they interrelated?
Understanding how the task is situated within your discipline/ field/ courses is crucial to developing a
comprehensive answer.
2. Identify some key ideas
Remember that any essay question does not stand alone: its purpose is to assess how well you understand some
key concepts, theories or conflicts in your current course. Consider these concepts, theories or conflicts while you
are preparing your essay. Look at course outlines, lecture notes, seminar readings to identify key themes of the
course.
Use brainstorming or mind-mapping techniques to identify key ideas.
3. The first literature search
Initially it is often difficult to find readings: search library catalogues, abstracts and databases for material (do a
course in the library to learn how). However, when you find sources the amount of reading is often overwhelming.
Ask yourself: what is relevant?; what is more central and what is less important?
Think strategically: who are the key writers in the field?; how can you identify these? Do the course readings
contain useful articles? Start with the key writers in the field that your lecturer recommends, and then progress to
articles, books and journals as you narrow your search for more specific or specialised material.
4. Read
Initially, one of the greatest challenges at university and in essay writing is learning how to read academically.
When you read, read for a specific purpose: what is the writer’s argument (in the research phase)?; how does this
writer refute the position of another writer (later in the research phase)?; are the elements of grammar correct in my
essay (in the later stages of editing)?
Consciously select and apply a reading strategy (see later in the handbook). Read to obtain an overview of what
people are writing on the topic: where are the debates within this topic? What are the key issues of these debates?
Are there any key theorists writing on the topic? What evidence is being used to justify each position or
interpretation of the topic?
Consciously select and apply a note taking strategy (see later in the handbook).
5. Work towards constructing an argument
Try to express your argument or position in one clear sentence. For example “This paper argues...”
Select, from your readings, evidence and ideas that might support your argument.
Next, consider what things you need to do to persuade the reader of your position. Will you need to define key
terms, compare and contrast, critically evaluate the literature, provide background context, analyse a case study,
and so on? Once you have thought of the things you will do, this is called the structure of your argument and it
provides a potential outline of the main sections of the essay.
6. Construct your argument around an outline
The first division of your topic into parts represents your view of what is important in these debates: this is your
Page 1 of 3

Critically examine the meaning of the term 'development'."We should stop talking about poverty eradication because the poor are trapped in their pover

1. Critically examine the meaning of the term 'development'.

2. "We should stop talking about poverty eradication because the poor are trapped in their poverty and cannot get out of it". Discuss this statement using examples from development practice and relevant literature.
Qn.1
Development has many meanings. The meaning a particular person attaches to the term depends on her subjective view of the world. Indeed, the meaning of development is not only a product of the individual's perspective but also of the particular period in time when the word is being uttered. Thus, in order to understand the various theories of development, one must place them in a historical context. (Conteras, R 2003:1)
Sapru.R.K (2002:3) noted that the concept of development is neither new nor old. Development is a continuously and dynamic concept. Since the beginning of civilization it has been taking different shapes and dimensions. The nature of development as seen in the early 1990s differs considerably from that seen in the early 1950s or from that in the 19th century. Development never will be and never can be defined to universal satisfaction states the Brandt commission. Uphoff and Iichman (1972:IX) as noted in Sapru.R.K (2002:3) pointed out that development is probably the most depreciated terms in social science literature having been used more than it has been understood.
Further more, Marcus Power (2003:1) argued that
……..the term actually has no clear and unequivocal meaning and is in a sense truly the stuff of myth, mystique and mirage. Little consensus exits around the meaning of this heavily contested term yet most if not all leaders of the world’s many nation-states and international organizations claim to be pursuing this objective in some way.
How ever, according to VSO (2005:5) there are three factors that influence the understanding of the concept of development. These include:
 Perceptions. Perceptions of development are wide and varied. They are informed by the variety of backgrounds people come from. They are also part of cultural socializations. This means that people from different cultures or social backgrounds and professions perceive development and development issues differently
 Values and beliefs. Development is significantly influenced by people’s values and beliefs. Values and beliefs are based on people’s culture, social orientation, spirituality and religious convictions. What people think is or is not important is affected by beliefs and social conditioning. This strongly influences people’s understanding and response to development needs
 Cultural values. Culture can be defined as a set of values and beliefs shared by a group or community in one common local area or at a regional level. Cultural backgrounds give people their identity. Although many cultures exit, they also share many similarities. For example the exclusion of youth from leadership or the exclusion of women from decision-making and relationships in gender and gender roles.
Development is rather amorphous and there is a multiplicity of views as what constitutes development. In this discussion a number of views suggesting what development is, are critically examined to help us have a deeper understanding of the concept of development. These include the following:
Earlier definitions of development focused on economic growth and the reproduction of economic, social and political systems that existed in the western industrial nations. This definition was abandoned when it became apparent that the developing countries were not modernizing as anticipated. Todaro (1982:68) noted that, “when a large number of third world nations did achieve the overall UN growth targets but the levels of living of the masses of people remained for the most parts unchanged, signaled that something was very wrong with this narrow definition of development”. Development was then redefined to imply progress towards a range of welfare goals. It was defined in terms of being able to guarantee the provision of basic needs, create full employment and reduce inequality. Development has continued to change meaning depending on who is talking and thinking about it.
According to Kaplan A. (2000) as noted in Wallace T & Lewis D. (Eds.) Development is an innate (natural, inherent, inborn, intrinsic) process found in all living things. Being a natural process development cannot be created or engineered. It exists independently of the development practitioner. All that we can do is facilitate processes that are already in motion. Where they are not in motion, it would be best- and honest- to refrain.
Development is not something that is brought. Being driven from within, it is not the prerogative of an outsider. Respect for the integrity of others’ processes must be paramount, not simply from a moral point of view but because of the reality of the development process. Development practitioners can only assist the flow of the process.
Development does have a pace of its own, although interventions can affect its pace- either hinder or facilitate it. Development is non-linear, unpredictable and even archaic in nature. It involves a constant interplay between order and chaos, between form and flow.

Development interventions are about the development of people and development cannot be opposed. They are driven form within that the one off pre-designed packages (expert products or packages of resources) applied at particular times are unbefitting. Development interventions are about processes that are created and applied in response to particular situations to help people gain an understanding of them selves so that in time they are better able to control their own future and arrive at effective solutions to problems including political and economic marginalization.
Development or maturation implies an unfolding in time and this unfolding always takes place in what may be termed as formal direction. This reveals another distinguishing characteristic of Development: it is irreversible. The irreversibility of almost all natural phenomena is a basic fact of experience. We know that we cannot grow any younger. (Kaplan. A, 1996:3)
It should be noted that because situations change continuously in response to development intervention, flexibility is required. This places a big responsibility on the practitioner and organization and demands new capacities with respect to reflecting, clearing and managing.
According to Korten, the development process entails three phases that are not necessarily superior to one another these include:
Dependence is characterized by great learning and skills acquisition in which other players play a major role in providing the environment and resources required for growth.
Independence entails a fundamental change in relationships and a period of testing and personalizing capabilities and competencies using them to act and affect the environment in ways that help establish the actor as unique and self reliant.
Interdependence At this phase the actor appreciates the fact that one’s potential is achieved only through effective collaboration with others.

The experience of each phase provides learning and capabilities that are vital to the ability to engage in the next phase. It should be noted that these phases are continually recurring and overlapping in the course of the life of the individual, organization or community.
Development is nonlinear, unpredictable, and even anarchic; at the same time, there appear to be natural phases, sequences, and modalities that can be said to characterize the process as a particular pattern or arrangement

The supposition of this definition is that development cannot be engineered nor can it be created, as a process it exists independently of the development practitioner. The responsibility of the development practitioner, in this view of development is to facilitate what is already in existence. In this respect development cannot be brought to a community, however being a conception driven from with in, it is not the choice of an outsider. It is assumed that the world is changeable and that people, the engineers have the ability to affect the necessary changes. Development is closely linked to the ability to control transformation of the social structure and it assumes that it is possible to move from a situation of restriction or dependency to one of self-sufficiency.

UNDP 2000 like Kaplan looks at development as a process. However, for UNDP, development is looked at in terms of Human Development. It defines Human Development as a process of enlarging people’s choices, by expanding human functionings and capabilities (UNDP, 2000: 17). Functionings of a person mean the valuable things that the person can do or be, such as well being nourished, living long and taking part in the life of a community. Capability refers to the different combinations of functionings. Capabilities reflect the freedom to achieve functionings. Capabilities can vary in form and content, though they are also often closely interrelated. They include the basic freedoms of being able to meet bodily requirements, such as the ability to avoid starvation and undernourishment, or to escape preventable morbidity or premature mortality. They also include the enabling opportunities given by schooling, like liberty and the economic means to move freely and to choose one’s abode.

There are also important “social” freedoms, such as the capability to participate in the life of the community, to join in public discussion, to participate in political decision-making and even the elementary ability “to appear in public without shame”. Human development is concerned, ultimately, with all the capabilities that people have reason to value. The human development index (HDI) incorporates the most elementary capabilities, such as living a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and enjoying a decent standard of living. Indeed, longevity is itself an important means to other capabilities, since one does not have the freedom to do much unless one is alive.

Human development also reflects the freedom to achieve. In this sense Human Development is freedom, which can relate to human rights.
Human rights and human development are interlinked and are purposed to secure the freedom, well-being and dignity of all people. “If human development focuses on the enhancement of the capabilities and freedoms that the members of a community enjoy, human rights represent the claims that individuals have on the conduct of individual and collective agents and on the design of social arrangements to facilitate or secure these capabilities and freedoms”. (UNDP, 2000: 20)

Human development brings a dynamic long-term perspective to the fulfillment of Human rights by directing attention to the socio-economic context in which rights can be realized or threatened. It also contributes to building a long run strategy for the realization of human rights.

Therefore, it can be argued out that human development is about securing freedom like: Freedom from discrimination by gender, race, ethnicity, national origin or religion, freedom to enjoy a decent standard of living, freedom to develop and realize one’s human potential, freedom from fear that is, of threats to personal security, from torture, arbitrary arrest and other violent acts, freedom from injustice and violations of the rule of law, freedom of thought and speech and to participate in decision-making and form associations, and freedom for decent work

It should be noted that human rights are a very important aspect in development, because they add value to the agenda of development through bring legal tools and laws, which helps to secure freedoms and human development. They also help to shift priority to the most disadvantaged and excluded, especially to deprivations because of discrimination, direct attention to the need for information and political voice for all people as a development issue

Human development focuses directly on the progress of human lives and well being. Since well being includes living with substantial freedoms, human development is also integrally connected with enhancing certain capabilities that is to say the range of things a person can do and be in leading a life. We value the freedom of being able to live, as we would like and even the opportunity to choose our own fate.
In short, human development is essential for realizing human rights, and human rights are essential for full human development.
In this view, development is seen in a broader sense than the rise or fall of national incomes. It is about creating an environment in which people can develop to their full potential, lead productive, and creative lives in accord with their needs and interests.

Todaro. M (1981:70) argues that though economic progress is an essential component of development it is not the only component because development is not purely an economic phenomenon. In an ultimate sense, it must encompass more than the material and financial side of people’s lives.
He therefore defined Development as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and the eradication of absolute poverty. Development in its essence must represent the entire gamut of change by which an entire social system tuned to the diverse basic needs and desires of individuals and social groups with in that system, moves a way from a condition of life widely perceived as unsatisfactory and toward a situation or condition of life regarded as materially and spiritually ‘better’ (Todaro. P, 1981:70)
There are three core values that relate to fundamental human needs that find their expression in almost all societies and cultures at all times. These can help to serve as a conceptual basis and practical guideline for understanding the inner meaning of development. These include:
Life sustenance: the ability to provide basic needs

All people have certain basics without which life would be impossible. These ‘life-sustaining’ needs include indisputably, food, shelter, health and protection. When any of these is absent or in critically short supply, we may state without reservation that a condition of absolute underdevelopment exists. A basic function of all economic activity therefore is to provide as many people as possible with means of overcoming the helplessness and misery arising from a lack of food, shelter, health and protection.

Self-esteem: To be a person. This is the sense of worth and self-respect, of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. All people and societies seek some basic form of self-esteem although they may call it authenticity, identity, dignity, respect, honour, or recognition. National prosperity has become an almost universal measure of wealth. Because of the importance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are nowadays increasingly conferred only on those countries that possess economic wealth and technological power.

Freedom from servitude: to be able to choose. Freedom here is not to be understood in the political or ideological sense, but in more fundamental sense of freedom or emancipation from alienating material conditions of life, and freedom from social servitudes of men and women to nature, ignorance, other men and women misery, institutions of life, and dogmatic beliefs. It involves the expanded range of choices for societies and their members together with their minimization of external constraints in the pursuit of some social goal we call development.
Development is both a physical reality and state of mind in which society has through some combination of social, economic and institutional processes, secured the means for obtaining a better life.

According to Todaro, development should pursue the following objectives
• To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life-sustaining goods such as food, shelter, health and protection
• To raise level of living including, in addition to higher income, the provision of more jobs, better education and greater attention to cultural and humanistic values, all of which will serve not only to enhance material well being but also to generate greater individual and national self-esteem.
• To expand the range of economic and social choice to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence, not only in relation to other people and nation-states but also to the forces of ignorance and human misery

Todaro’s view suggests that the concept of development should not be looked at in only one dimension that is to say economic aspects, but it should be viewed in terms of multidimensional nature, in which all dimensions of development like political, social and economic aspects are considered for change. This should be done in order to achieve the core values of development-self esteem, life substance and freedom, all these cannot be achieved only through economic considerations. This means that a myopic view of development will lead to omission of pertinent issues that are of paramount importance to the whole process of development.

Though Chambers. R. (1997:10) agrees with other authors that development is a process; he argues that the objective of development is responsible well-being for all. Well-being can be described as the experience of good quality of life. Well-being refers to range of human experience, social, mental and spiritual as well as material well-being. It has many elements, and each individual may define it for herself or himself. Perhaps most people would agree to include living standards, access to basic services, security and freedom from fear, health, and good relations with others, friendship, love, peace of mind, choice, creativity, fulfillment and fun. Chambers put forward the web of responsible well- being to explain how well-being as an overarching goal of development can be arrived at. This is illustrated below:
Web of Responsible Well-being











Source: (Chambers. R 1997:10)

As seen from the web above, the overarching end is well-being, with capabilities and livelihood as means, equity and sustainability are principles which qualify livelihood to become livelihood security, and well-being to become responsible well-being.

Livelihood security is basic to well-being. Livelihood can be defined as adequate stocks and flows of food and cash to meet basic needs and to support well-being. Security refers to secure rights and reliable access to resources, food and income, and basic services. It includes tangible and intangible assets to offset risk, ease shocks and meet contingences. Sustainable livelihoods maintain or enhance resource productivity on a long-term basis and equitable livelihoods maintain or enhance the livelihoods and well-being of others.

Capabilities are means to livelihood and well-being. Capabilities refer to what people are capable of doing and being. They are means to Equity. The poor, weak vulnerable and exploited should come first. Equity includes human rights, intergenerational and gender equity, and the reversals of putting the last first and the first last, to be considered in all contexts. The reversals are not absolute, but a means of leveling.

Sustainability: To be good, conditions and change must be sustainable – economically, socially, institutionally, and environmentally. Sustainability means that long-term perspectives should apply to all policies and actions, with sustainable well-being and sustainable livelihoods as objectives for present and future generations.

There is a relationship between the five concepts mentioned above, though they are of different sorts. Equity and sustainability are principles. They also combine in intergenerational equity, the principle of assuring the rights and opportunities of future generations. For their part, capabilities and livelihood security are intermediate ends as means to well-being. The overarching end is well-being, qualified by equity and sustainability to be responsible. This means that well-being is not at the cost of equity and sustainability, but is enhanced when it contributes to them. Responsible well-being recognizes obligations to others, both those alive and future generations, and to their quality of life. In general, the word ‘responsible’ has moral force in proportion to wealth and power: the wealthier and more powerful people are, the greater the actual or potential impact of their actions or inactions, and so the greater the need and scope for their well-being to be responsible. The objective of development around which consensus might coalesce is then responsible well-being by and for all.

This view of development is interesting because it insists on basic needs of people being met, emphasizes the importance of building capabilities of individuals, and the importance of equity and sustainability. Development should therefore have a “human face” that is it should be intended for the well being of people both in the current and future generations. Development that falls short of these two principles (equity and sustainability) may be regarded as not being meaningful.

According to Korten. D, (1990:67) development is a process by which the members of a society increase their personal and institutional capacities to mobilize and manage resources to produce sustainable and justly distributed improvements in their quality of life consistent with their own aspirations. The above definition emphasizes the process of development and its essential focus on personal and institutional capacity

Korten’s view of development (People-centered development) is grounded in a worldview that perceives earth to be a life-sustaining spaceship with a finite store of physical resources. Its only external and virtually inexhaustible resource is sunlight. Thus the quality of life of its inhabitants depends on maintaining a proper balance between its solar energized regenerative systems, its resource stocks and the demands that its inhabitants place on these systems and resources.
Development is a continuous process therefore essential focus has to be put on personal and institutional capacity, and according to him (Korten) it should be guided by three principles of justice, sustainability and inclusiveness.

This view of development acknowledges that only the people themselves can define what they consider to be improvements in the quality of their lives. The achievement of this is suggested to be through the following Value orientations:
• The first priority in the use of earth’s resources should be to allow all people an opportunity to produce a basic livelihood for themselves and their families.
• Current generations have no right to engage in levels of nonessential consumption that deprive future generations of the possibility of sustaining decent human living standards.
• Every individual has the right to be a productive contributing member of family, community and society.
• Control of productive assets should be broadly distributed within society.
• Sovereignty resides in the people. The authority of the state is granted by the people and therefore may be withdrawn by them.
• Local economies should be diversified and reasonably self-reliant in producing for basic needs.
• People have a right to a voice in making the decisions that influence their lives and decision making should be as close to the level of individual, family and community as possible.
• Local decisions should reflect a global perspective and an acceptance of the rights and responsibilities of global citizenship.
Korten’s people-centered development favors human well-being and environment sustainability over additions to economic output, domestic over foreign markets, local financing and ownership over foreign borrowing and investment, and economic self-reliance over dependence on the international trading system. It welcomes participation in the global community, but from a position of independent strength-not external dependence.
Korten like other authors emphasize development being a process and not an end in its self, he also looks at important issues like just society and sustainable environment. How ever, this view is too optimistic in expecting that a quality of life that is quality for all will emerge if its definition is left solely to local aspirations.
Sen. A (1999:3) views development as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy. This view contrasts with narrower views of development, such as identifying development with the growth of gross national product, or with the rise in personal incomes, or with industrialization, or with technological advance, or with social modernization. Growth of GNP or of individual incomes can, of course, be very important as means to expanding the freedoms enjoyed by the members of the society. But freedoms depend also on other determinants, such as social and economic arrangements (for example, facilities for education and health care) as well as political and civil rights (for example, the liberty to participate in public discussion and scrutiny). (Sen, 1999:3)
Similarly, industrialization or technological progress or social modernization can substantially contribute to expanding human freedom, but freedom depends on other influences as well. If freedom is what development advances, then there is a major argument for concentrating on that overarching objective, rather than on some particular means or some specially chosen list of instruments. Viewing development in terms of expanding substantive freedoms directs attention to the ends that make development important, rather than merely to some of the means that, play a prominent part in the process.
Sen (1999) argues that development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states. Despite unprecedented increases in overall opulence, the contemporary world denies elementary freedoms to vast numbers- perhaps even the majority of people sometime the lack of substantive freedoms relates directly to economic poverty, which robs people of the freedom to satisfy hunger or to achieve sufficient nutrition or to obtain remedies for treatable illness, or the opportunity to be adequately clothed or sheltered.
In other cases the un freedom links closely to the lack of public facilities and social care, such as the absence of epidemiological programs, or of organized arrangement for health care or educational facilities, or of effective institution for the maintenance of local peace and order, in still other cases the violation of freedom results directly from a denial of political and civil liberties by authoritarian regimes and from imposed restrictions on the freedom to participate in social, political and economic life of the community

He argues that Freedom is critical to the process of development for two distinct reasons
 The evaluative reason: assessment of progress has to be done primarily in terms of whether the freedoms that people have are enhanced. The success of a society is to be evaluated primarily by the substantive freedoms that the members of that society enjoy. Having greater freedom to do the things one has reason to value is significant in itself for the person’s overall freedom, and important in fostering the person’s opportunity to have valuable outcomes. These are important to the evaluation of freedom of the members of the society and thus crucial to assessment of the society’s development. Here justice is seen in terms of individual freedoms.
 The effectiveness reason: achievement of development is thoroughly dependant on the free agency of people and individual initiative. Greater freedom enhances the ability of people to help them selves and also to influence the world

Sen (1999) further pointed out five distinct types of freedom. These include (1) political freedoms, (2) economic facilities, (3) social opportunities, (4) transparency guarantees and (5) protective security. Each of these distinct types of rights and opportunities helps to advance the general capability of a person. They may also serve to complement each other. Public policy to foster human capabilities and substantive freedoms in general can work through the promotion of these distinct but interrelated instrumental freedoms. In the chapters that follow, each of these different types of freedom - and the institutions involved - will be explored, and their interconnections discussed. There will be an opportunity also to investigate their respective roles in the promotion of overall freedoms of people to lead the kind of lives they have reason to value. In the view of “development as freedom,” the instrumental freedoms link with each other and with the ends of enhancement of human freedom in general. While development analysis must, on the one hand, be concerned with objectives and aims that make these instrumental freedoms consequentially important, it must also take note of the empirical linkages that tie the distinct types of freedom together, strengthening their joint importance. Indeed, these connections are central to a fuller understanding of the instrumental role of freedom. (Sen: 10)
In other words, the requirements for development can be described as an individual’s ability to participate freely in the political process, the mechanisms and capacity to seek economic well-being, the networks and connections which make social integration possible, free access to reliable information sources, and structures which allow personal safety. Sen puts it well:
…enhancement of human freedom is both the main object and the primary means of development. The objective of development relates to the valuation of the actual freedoms enjoyed by the people involved. Individual capabilities crucially depend on, among other things, economic, social, and political arrangements. In making appropriate institutional arrangements, the instrumental roles of distinct types of freedom have to be considered, going well beyond the foundational importance of the overall freedom of individuals.
The instrumental roles of freedom include several distinct but interrelated components, such as economic facilities, political freedoms, social opportunities, transparency guarantees and protective security. These instrumental rights, opportunities and entitlements have strong interlinkages, which can go in different directions. The process of development is crucially influenced by these interconnections. Corresponding to multiple interconnected freedoms, there is a need to develop and support a plurality of institutions, including democratic systems, legal mechanisms, market structures, educational and health provisions, media and other communication facilities and so on. The institutions can incorporate private initiatives as well as public arrangements and also more mixed structures, such as nongovernmental organizations and cooperative entities.
The ends and means of development call for placing the perspective of freedom at the center of the stage. The people have to be seen, in this perspective, as being actively involved - given the opportunity - in shaping their own destiny, and not just as passive recipients of the fruits of cunning development programs. The state and the society have extensive roles in strengthening and safeguarding human capabilities. This is a supporting role, rather than one of ready-made delivery. The freedom -centered perspective on the ends and the means of development has some claim to our attention (Sen: 53).
This view emphasizes that development should be measured by how much freedom a country has, since without freedom people cannot make the choices that allow them to help themselves and others. This view highlights the limitations in looking at development as economic growth, because there can be growth but when freedom is lacking. So the great concern for this view is the need for the removal of unfreedom situations if meaningful development is to be achieved.




According to Friedman (1992:33), Development is a process that seeks the empowerment of the households and their individual members through their involvement in socially and politically relevant actions. Empowerment includes an emphasis on local decision-making, local self-reliance, participatory democracy and social learning. It pursues the transcendent goals of inclusive democracy, appropriate economic growth, gender equality and sustainability (Friedman, 1992:164)
Friedman’s understanding of development follows closely from his definition of poverty as limited access to social power. Using a household as a unit of analysis where he describes it as being embedded with in four domains of social practice that is the state, political community, civil society and corporate economy. This is shown in the figure below:

Life Space for Household and Four Arenas of Social Power

Life Space
(Territory)



























Global Economic Space
Transnational Corporation (TNCs)
Source: (Friedman, 1992:27)
As shown above, each domain has distinctive types of power state power, political power, social power and economic power.
Each domain also has its own set of institutions. The core of political community consists of independent political organizations. In the over lap between the state and the political community domains, Friedman places the legislative and regulatory bodies. The core of civil society is the household where the domains of civil society and the state overlap; we find churches, and voluntary organizations. The central institution of the corporate economy is the corporation. This domain is also open and profoundly interconnected with the global economy and transnational corporation where the corporate economy overlaps with the political community; we find political parties, protest movements, and environmental groups. Where the corporate economy overlaps with civil society we find the non-formal economic sector and popular economic groups. These interacting domains are the system with in which the household struggles to find space, location, and influence.

He then described eight bases of social power that are available to the poor as avenues for creating space and influence. These include social net works, information for self development, surplus time, instruments of work and livelihood, social organization, knowledge and skills, defensible space and financial resources as illustrated below:
Eight Bases of Social Power and the Poor

Information for
Financial resources Social networks self-development






Surplus time
Defensible life space






Instruments of

Knowledge and skills work& livelihood
Social organizations

Source: Friedman, 1992:67

Friedman argues that there is much need for working with the household so that it is empowered to increase the cover of its social power by building, empowering and nurturing social networks and social organizations along the eight lines of social power.

Transformation as Expanding the Social and Political Power of Households


Life Space
(Territory)

Inclusive and Just Legal
System Participating in the
Political Process








Participating in the
Economic System
Economic System
Responsible to Human
and Environmental Costs








Global Economic Space

Source: (Friedman, 1992:27)

As seen in the figure above, Friedman believes that in the last part of the twentieth century, the domain of the state is shrinking because of the dominance of neo-liberalism, while the domain of the domain of the economy is expanding as it is linked and incorporated into the global economy. However, he noted that this leaves out two major transformational frontiers (Civil Society and Political Community frontiers) which are critical to empowering the household. Therefore he suggested that the alternative development (Development as enhancement of social and political powers), works to expand these two domains, thus creating more life space for the poor

Like Korten’s view of development (People centered development), this view emphasizes participation of individual members in all action that are aimed at developing them. It is through this that they could be empowered to be able to determine their own destiny. This also suggests that the people should be given the opportunity to practice their social power and create more space and influence for themselves, through financial resources, information for self development, social organizations, knowledge and skills to mention but a few. The development process should involve enabling of the poor to be empowered to increase the cover of social power. However, in this liberalized and globalized world the arenas in which the poor could express their social power and influence have not expanded. Therefore there is view solves to enable the expansion of these domains (political economy and civil society) to give room for people to expand their social power. This is a very important point in this view of development, because people can not politically, spiritually and economically develop when there is no social development. All these aspects affect each other to enhance development

In conclusion, in the above examination of development, it is evident that development has changed meaning over time and it changes according to the situation and context in which it is being defined. The meaning attached to development depends on who is thinking and talking about it. This shows that development has no fixed definition but suggestions are put forward on what it means depending on prevailing situation. It is therefore an open concept and not fixed where new views about it can be considered at any given time. However, though different authors view development differently there are some commonalities in these views. For example, most if not all scholars agree that development is a change process and that it aims at improving the wellbeing of the people, in all walks of life be it social, political, spiritual and economic wellbeing.

Qn: "We should stop talking about poverty eradication because the poor are trapped in their poverty and cannot get out of it". Discuss this statement using examples from development practice and relevant literature.

World Development Report 1990 defines poverty as the inability to attain a minimal standard of living.
However, according to UN’s World Summit on Social Development (Copenhagen Declaration), poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, education and information.

Further more, UNDP (1997) argued that “poverty means that opportunities and choices most basic to human development are denied-to lead long, healthy, creative life and to enjoy a decent standard of living, freedom, dignity, self respect and respect of others”.

There are mainly two types of poverty these include:
Absolute poverty: This is a situation where incomes are so low that even a minimum standard of nutrition shelter and personal necessities cannot be maintained.
Relative poverty: This refers to people whose basic needs are met, but who in terms of their social environment still experience some disadvantage. The people are surviving but may be materially disadvantaged compared to others in society.

It is true the poor are trapped, but there can be ways in which they can be helped to free themselves from this poverty entrapment as it will be discussed later on. However, a discussion of how the poor are trapped is given below:
Chambers (1983) has argued that the poor are trapped in a cycle of poverty called the deprivation trap. He identifies five types of disadvantages that are experienced by the poor and which reinforce each other to trap households in poverty. These disadvantages include Poverty, Physical weakness, Isolation, vulnerability and Powerlessness. He noted that when household or people are trapped it becomes hard for them to escape from this trap. Below is an illustration of how each form of deprivation creates further forms, entrapping the poor.






The Deprivation Trap














Source: Chambers. R (1983:112)

The above deprivation trap is explained in the following ways:
Poverty: This is a situation where a household has few or no assets. For example the household has no land or has land which does not assure or barely assures subsistence. Poverty is a strong determinant of other disadvantages. It leads to physical weakness through lack of food, and inability to reach or even pay for health services. It contributes to isolation due to the inability to pay the cost of schooling, travel or buy a radio. Poverty reinforces vulnerability through lack of assets to pay large expenses or to meet emergencies, and it contributes to powerlessness because lack of wealth goes with low status. When some one is poor he or she lacks a voice and can not influence any decision in his or her favour.

Physical weakness: Generally poor households are large with a high ratio of dependants to able bodied adults. These include the elderly, the children, the sick and handicapped. Such household need a great deal of food but due to little income it becomes hard for them to acquire their basic needs. Due to the high number of people and limited food, malnutrition and undernourishment set in. Physical weakness leads to poverty through the low productivity of weak labour, and an inability to cultivate larger piece of land. It also leads to poverty through low wages that are paid to women and those that are weak and also though withdrawal of labour due to illnesses. It reinforces isolation because due to illnesses people may not be able to attend meetings or seek information. It accentuates powerlessness through lack of energy or time for political participation, protests. It contributes to vulnerability by restraining the poor household’s ability to over come a crisis through hard work, new activities, or negotiations for help.

Isolation: The household is located in the periphery and detached from the out side world, and lack infrastructures like roads, communication net works, schools, medical facilities. This to poverty because services do not reach those who are remote, due to lack of educational facilities, members of such households are illiterate and can not read information of economic value and also find it hard to obtain loans from money lending institutions. It contributes to physical weakness, because such a household may have a high level of migration of able-bodied persons to town living behind the old, young, sick and handicapped who are of less or no economic value. Isolation also contributes to vulnerability. Remote areas are more likely to face crop failures and floods and do not have services to handle emergences like famine and diseases and are liable to suffer manipulation by middlemen. Isolation contributes to powerlessness, because it leads to lack of contact with political leaders or legal counsel, and not knowing which decision are being made due lack of knowledge of meeting.

Vulnerability: This is a situation where a household has few buffers against contingencies. This leads to poverty through the sale or mortgage of productive assets and this may be even at a less value. It contributes to physical weakness because in order for a household to be in position to handle emergencies, time and energy has to be substituted for money. It reinforces isolation through the withdrawal to distant areas and fewer reciprocal relationships following shocks and emergencies.
Vulnerability contributes to powerlessness through dependence on others for survival

Powerlessness: In most cases if not all, poor households are voiceless. It leads to poverty mainly through the exploitation of the poor by the rich; it limits the poor household’s access to resources from the government. It is nearly impossible for the powerless people to attract government attention, lack legal redress, and they are subject to bribe to be helped. They have limited negotiating powers, and usually earn from other households. It reinforces physical weakness because, for the powerless time and energy have to be devoted to queuing for access, labour obligations to the patrons reduce labour available for the household production and earning which leads to shortage of food and other basic necessities. Powerlessness links to isolation through the inability of those who are powerless to attract government services like infrastructures like schools, health centers, roads and communication networks. Powerlessness also makes the poor more vulnerable to sudden demands for the payments of loans, to threat of prosecution and fine or imprisonment, or to demands for a bribe in a dispute.

However, though the poor are trapped as discussed above, we shouldn’t stop talking about poverty eradication. It should be noted that it is important to keep talking about a problem, since it helps in generating ideas or solutions to the problems. The poverty trap can be escaped, and the chronic poverty Report (2008-2009:105-113) indicated some of the ways to help the poor escape or break the trap these include: - Nets of social protection, particularly through cash transfers to households; Public services for the hard to reach poor; Anti-discrimination and Gender empowerment measures; Building individual and collective assets, and Strategic urbanization and Migration policies.

Social protection and social assistance: It should be noted that State-provided social protection, and social assistance, has a vital role to play in reducing the insecurity that breeds poverty. It is affordable, can be politically acceptable, and can develop solidarity by distributing risk across a population. Social protection helps in tackling the life-course and intergenerational implications of poverty.

It was noted by chamber, R (1983: 112) that the poor are powerless therefore, they lack political representation and power, which negates their status as citizens. There is therefore a need for executive actors and midlevel bureaucrats to champion their cause. Urban–rural politics is also important. The urban poor are visible and can be threatening to urban elites; they are therefore sometimes able to make stronger claims than the rural poor, through social and political movements and effective local government representation.

Civil society organizations also have an important role to play. Whilst direct lobbying has only rarely played a critical role in initiating social protection measures, civil society organizations appear to be a significant force in helping recipient groups form a policy constituency capable of protecting social protection policies, once they are in place.

Elites and the people in government need to be convinced that the poor face significant constraints that require public action. They should know that poverty is in most cases caused by factors beyond the control of the deprived group, and donors need to make long-term commitments, to encourage governments to follow suit.
It should be noted that not only does social protection provide security for the poorest and most marginalized people, through maintaining minimum consumption levels. For example improving nutrition, education and healthcare and asset holdings, but it can also help to build a momentum for much wider societal changes. It can help to stimulate economic growth, increase agency, choice, and economic entitlement, increase demand for key public services, and foster the social compact between the citizens and the state.

Public services for the hard to reach: In the discussion above, it was noted that, isolation and physical weakness are some of the disadvantages faced by the poor, the poor lack education facilities, access to opportunities, information, transport and communication facilities which leads to illness, to mention but a few. To over come this, equitable and free access to public services for the poor is a fundamental intervention. In particular, reproductive health services and post-primary education are key areas that deserve much greater attention and expenditure.

Bringing services to the poor is certainly a challenge due to limited resources and other factors. But interventions in reproductive health, education and nutrition complement each other, forming a virtuous circle of social and economic development. Markets alone do not ensure universal access to basic social services. Public action is vital, regardless of whether an economy is centrally planned or market-oriented. The state has a key role to play in ensuring adequate coverage of services mainly in rural areas, because private providers and professionals tend to be concentrated in urban areas, where the greatest demand and returns to investment can be found.
Social investments are important because they increase its efficiency. For example, if the population is educated this will ensure that in case investments are made for example in health infrastructure, there will be a strong demand for health services. This will help tackle poverty caused through lack of access and affordability of social services

The building of individual and collective assets: It was noted in the above discussion that the poor are vulnerable because they lack assets to off set risks, and they are also excluded from employment opportunities and the growth process. Those who are healthy work hard, but without much education their opportunities are limited. A lack of secure land and housing in urban areas, plus livestock and tools in rural areas, compounds their disadvantages. Without access to formal credit and insurance markets, assets are frequently sold off at very low prices in times of distress.
It should be noted that asset holdings increase the personal or collective agency of the poor. The more assets a household has, the more influence it has in social networks and transactions, as well as in formal financial markets. This applies to psychological assets, as well as physical and social assets. Though the non-material assets are less tangible, there is no doubt they can play a vital role in reducing poverty.

Social protection has a strong role to play in protecting and accumulating assets. Schemes can increase individual assets, either indirectly through cash transfers, or directly through asset transfers. The provision of basic collective assets, such as basic water and sanitation services in urban locations and roads, decent schools buildings and health facilities in rural locations, plays a vital role in forming and sustaining human capital. This is often the basis for the accumulation of further assets. Social movements also have a vital role to play in mobilizing around key issues such as housing or the provision of basic water and sanitation facilities.

Further more, in areas or regions characterized by high levels of asset inequality like in land and other productive assets, the government may carry out a redistribution exercise. However, to ensure fair asset distribution, a redistribution of assets themselves should not be carried out. But rather the redistribution has to be incorporated into the fiscal system. This can be done through progressive taxation. For example of capital gains from land sales, to finance public spending that creates better livelihoods and human capital for the poor. This will help reduce vulnerability of the poor, since they will acquire assets that will put them in a better position to offset risks.

Anti-discrimination and gender empowerment policies: Policies should be put in place to ensure progress towards social inclusion, achieving greater levels of ‘agency’ and economic choice, and enabling gender empowerment. This can be achieved through processes of transformative social change. There are powerful policy levers in five key areas:

Legal rights: Formal equality before the law, including constitutional declarations of equality, explanation of the rights of certain groups, the ability to seek legal redress; also access to justice, and elimination of discrimination from the justice system. The poor will be helped to gain power and equal footing with other people.

Political representation: For example, supporting members of discriminated-against groups, or ensuring their representation in legislature, and other types of engagement with formal political processes. When this is implemented vulnerable groups like the youth, women, elderly, to mention but a few will be helped to get their views reach the policy makers.

Economic resources: For example, prohibiting discrimination in labour markets or access to finance, redistributive tax or benefits systems to help discriminated-against groups.
This includes environmental issues, such as land and water usage, natural resource-based livelihoods. As citizens of the country the poor should get equal access to resources just like other people, this will help them to carry out economic activities, which in the end leads to improved standard of living

Key public services: Key services especially those most needed by the poor should be availed to them. These include service like education, health, and housing. Education will help the poor to get knowledge and skills which will help them to acquire jobs. Health and housing and other welfare services will help the poor over come physical weakness, and will be in position to carry out economic activities which will improve their wellbeing.

Attitudes and perceptions: Policies such as mass media campaigns, and the promotion of grassroots initiatives, can help to tackle hard-to-legislate-against discrimination (such as domestic violence). Role models play a vital function here.

Gender empowerment can be supported through antidiscrimination legislation. It can also be underpinned by many other means. There should be access to reproductive health services and post-primary education, as two ways of supporting gender empowerment. There is a need to find significant political energy to support the new MDG target for universal access to reproductive health. It requires concerted support. Participating in the demographic transition needs to be seen as a basic right – the poor should not have to wait for this. However, it should be noted that legislation should not end on statue books but they should be implemented and enforced.

Strategic urbanization and migration: The poor generally are isolated and it is rear for them to move, but where it is possible, migration can extend agency and the range of economic choice. It can also loosen exploitative and constraining social relationships, such as caste or class systems, or those characterized by the difficult exchange between security and the possibility of future improvements. Migration can also help to ‘liberate’ women from conservative rural constraints. However, most urban populations and government are often persistently hostile to migrants, resulting in exclusion and discrimination. In addition to inclusive economic growth, which generates employment opportunities, creating a favorable environment for migration can be achieved through public information campaigns to counter negative stereotypes and the reform of social services, to make them more accessible to migrants.

Further more, urbanization if properly managed, can benefit the poor. It can provide escape routes from adverse economic and social relationships; improve rural access to services and social capital; and generate political mobilization. There are good and underused policy levers to spread the benefits of urbanization: infrastructure development; regional development policies; and city policies on employment. Not only can urbanization provide opportunities for those who engage directly – urban residents, migrants and suppliers of goods and services – it also has indirect effects on wage rates and prices. This will help to break the deprivation trap by dealing with isolation of the poor

Urbanization itself often creates potentially volatile political pressures, which can lead to pro-poor policy, such as the creation of trade unions and social movements. Such political forces can help translate the benefits from urban economic growth into improvements in human development indicators for all urban inhabitants.

In conclusion, as discussed above it is true that the poor are trapped in the cycle of poverty. However, we shouldn’t give up on the idea of poverty eradication, because it is possible for the poor to be helped to free themselves from the trap. Some of the ways in which the poor can be helped to escape poverty have been given above. However, it should be noted that such efforts should allow greater participation of the poor to ensure their empowerment in order for them to determine their own destiny and to ensure sustainability of such efforts.





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Women are already integrated into development process and there is no need to give their issues special attention” Discuss.

“Women are already integrated into development process and there is no need to give their issues special attention” Discuss.
According to Gordon and Bryson et al; development is looked at in its widest sense of growth and change brought about by a combination of political, social and economic forces operating on a country-wide or regional level. These changes are a result of local structures and conditions, colonial and neo-colonial experience, urbanization and industrialization as well as the polices of development planners. According to Caplan, he was concerned with the latter, policies of development planners and their likely effects on gender relations, family relations and marriages.

From the assertion above that “women are already integrated in development process and therefore, no need to give their issues special attention” is a mere statement that does not hold any water. According to Susanne Wymann (2002), she argues that even when women are integrated in development, their vital role in sustainable development is not sufficiently documented poorly understood and rarely do women projects taken into account.
Susanne Wymann admits that women’s concerns have been the subject of debate during the last three decades and some efforts have been made to develop more gender sensitive policies and programme as well as opportunities for women. However, it is important to note that there is still a great lack of disaggregated data on women’s roles and responsibilities on their access to and on their knowledge of and participation in the elaboration of strategies to improve the situation the face as a result of male out-migration, globalization and marginalization.

The issues concerning women and their part (or not) in the development process have been increasing examined over the year. It is important to note that the triple roles (reproduction, production and community roles) of women have often been adversely affected by development process. There is a wide gap between women’s high, yet unrecognized economic participation and their low political and social power and development strategies have usually taken the needs of the most vocal and politically active as their starting point.

To begin analyzing the integration of women in development and whether to focus or not on their issues, areas of the labour force provided (agriculture, employment, industry and trade), political, legal economic and social constraints, legal status entitlements, education involvement among other sectors must be close scrutinized

Division of labour or provision of labour can take different forms and these could be formal or non formal. As noted in the progress of the world’s women (2000), drastically (UNIFEM 2000). However, this can lead to greater inequality and exploitation, as in free trade zone factories rather than enhanced rights for women. In agriculture, there are marked and persistent gender inequalities, women and children (girls) provide almost all the labour for food crop production, much of which is retained for household consumption. Women also provide an estimated 60% of the labour for cash crops such as coffee, cotton and cereals in Uganda.
In spite of their high contribution, women hardly control income from agricultural production, including that of the surplus sales in food crops where their labour input is highest. Nor do the majority of them have a say in how income, which is controlled by men, is used. Women have access to agricultural land through their husbands or male relatives but when widowed or divorced they lose this access and may have to return to their father’s land where they may not be welcome by their brothers and sisters in law. There is an ongoing debate in parliament at the moment addressing women’s inheritance rights under the Domestic Relations Bill.
Women’s experience with credit is limited given that they do not own land, as collateral required by banks. The few lending programmes that have tried to target women have shown that such factors as unfamiliarity with banks or distance from home to bank makes agricultural credit less attractive to women. Other constraints for women in agriculture include inadequate extension contact, lack of appropriate technologies, low participation in marketing, limited access to information and training.
In addition to the gender division of labour, in industry and trade, women have been confined to small-scale operations in the informal sector; however exciting these operations are and despite the trading empires built up by the most successful female entrepreneurs; women's average incomes are relatively low. Women are also handicapped in access to formal sector jobs by their lower educational attainments, and those who succeed are placed in lower grade, lower paid jobs. Elite women who wish to improve their legal and economic status must expect to lose honour and respect (Obbe, 1999).
Related to the above, there is often sexism in job promotions and unpleasant consequences if women stand up to men. There is often more respect for male professionals (even from women themselves) than there is for female. Women often suffer employment discrimination because they need to take time off for maternity leave or when a child is sick. Career women often have to work harder at their jobs to keep even with their male counterparts. Despite all these obstacles, women continue to move into different professions, including those traditionally seen as male jobs, such as engineering and architecture. Women can be found at senior levels in many organizations in many countries. They are also taking up various different professions, such as law, medicine, politics, etc. These women may be in the minority now, but things are changing all over Africa.

Political sector; it should be noted that across the world and Uganda in particular, women representation in parliaments is limited. According to Uganda parliament on line, Uganda has so far achieved 33% representation of women in parliament that is 102 women representative of the 333 total representations and this has been made possible through the district quota system where there is a reserved seat at a district level. Number of women MPs indicated above includes women who contested the constituency seats directly. Uganda is doing much better at local governments (LC V, and LC III) where women representation stands at 38.9% and 44.6% respectively. According to data from the ministry of gender and social development, Uganda takes the 5th position in Africa after Rwanda, Mozambique, South Africa and Namibia take lead respectively. It is however, unfortunate that the Executive arm of government has the least women representation. At cabinet level, women take 27% and the men take 73% while state ministerial positions, women share only 16.2% and 83.7% for men. From the above, statistics, one can be able to conclude that decision making, and resource allocation at higher levels, will be much determined by the majority (men). And there is no doubt that men will always dominate all the powerful positions and drive the vehicle of development while women are watching.

Most African women, in common with women all over the world, face a variety of legal, economic and social constraints. Indeed some laws still treat them as minors. In Zaire, for instance, a woman must have her husband's consent to open a bank account. Women are known to grow 80 per cent of food produced in Africa, and yet few are allowed to own the land they work. It is often more difficult for women to gain access to information and technology, resources and credit. Agricultural extension and formal financial institutions are biased towards a male clientele' despite women's importance as producers (this has spurred the growth of women's groups and cooperatives which give loans and other help). Women end up working twice as long as men, 15 to 18 hours a day, but often earn only one tenth as much. With such workloads, women often age prematurely. Harrison correctly observes that: 'Women's burdens - heavy throughout the third world - are enough to break a camel's back in much of Africa' (Harrison 2000).
Social attitudes to women are responsible for the gender differences in both the education system and the labour force, as we will see below. Differential access to educational and training opportunities has led to low proportions of women in the formal sector and their subsequent concentration in low paid production jobs with limited career prospects. So, although women play an important role in African society, they suffer legal, economic and social constraints.

Female education affects family health and nutrition, agricultural productivity, and fertility, yet there is a wide gender gap in education. Lack of resources and pressures on time and energies put enormous constraints on the ability of women to maintain their own health and nutrition as well as that of their children. As a result, women are less well equipped than men to take advantage of the better income-earning opportunities that have emerged in Africa. Although food and nutrition are women's prime concerns in Africa, and they are the principal participants in agriculture, independent farming by women has been relatively neglected. Women's family labour contribution has increased, but goes unpaid.

Women's participation in national educational systems is again biased due to the socio-cultural and economic environments. There is also a lack of genuine political will to ensure that girls are given equal access to education in Africa. More than two-thirds of Africa's illiterates are women. Women are regarded as inferior to men and are not expected to aspire as high as men, especially in what are considered as 'male' fields (engineering, computing, architecture, medicine, etc.). It is largely assumed that educating women would make them too independent; in other words, they would not do what they are expected to do - look after the house, bring up children, and cater to their husband's needs. In poor countries, extending access to education and training is often difficult when the cultural and monetary costs are high or the benefits are limited. When families face economic problems they prefer to invest their limited resources in the education of boys rather than provide what is considered as 'prestigious' education for girls who would eventually marry and abandon their professions anyway. Nevertheless, girls are increasingly getting some limited education, and the focus of concern is gradually shifting to providing access to the same range of educational opportunities open to boys. In poor families, boys are often given first claim on whatever limited educational opportunities are available, although the global policy climate today is more supportive of measures designed to expand the educational horizons of girls than it was twenty years ago.

Differences in legal status and entitlements; I must acknowledge that the constitution of Uganda contains the gender related provisions. The Constitution of Uganda contains the gender related provisions like Chapter 4 talks about Protection and Promotion of Fundamental and other Human Rights and Freedoms article 21. (1) All persons are equal before and under the law in all spheres of Political, economic, social and cultural life and in every other respect and shall enjoy equal respect of the law, (2) Without prejudice to clause (1) of this article, a person shall not be discriminated against on the ground of sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or social or economic standing, political opinion or disability.
Secondly, Affirmative action in Favour of Marginalized groups Article 32. (1) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the state shall take affirmative action in favour of groups marginalized on the basis of gender, age, disability or any other reason created by history, tradition or custom, for the purpose of redressing the imbalances which exist against them. (2) Parliament shall make relevant laws, including laws for the establishment of an equal opportunities commission, for the purpose of giving full effect to clause (1) of this article. And in Article 33. (1) Women shall be accorded full and equal dignity of the person with men. (2) The state shall provide the facilities and opportunities necessary to enhance the welfare of women to enable them to realise their full potential and advancement. (3) The state shall protect women and their rights, taking into account their unique status and natural maternal functions in society. (4) Women shall have the right to equal treatment with men and that right shall include equal opportunities in political, economic and social activities (5) Without prejudice to article 32 of this Constitution, women shall have the right to affirmative action for the purpose of redressing the imbalances created by history, tradition or custom. (6) Laws, cultures, customs or traditions which are against the dignity, welfare or interest of women or which undermine their status are prohibited by the Constitution.
It is important to note that fighting for legal rights, legal equality and the elimination of gender discrimination are important for women. Do these things really effect on improving women’s rights? The disadvantaged positions of women are usually set up on the basis of social injustice. Wining a lawsuit in the courts will not completely change the situation of women today. Lots of attentions, researches and scholars who study women’s rights show that more women, from different cultural backgrounds, should actively take part in discussions of women's rights. Thus, the backgrounds of women's subservient status could be analyzed deeply. The content of women's rights could be expanded. And the problems which the majority of women are generally concerned about could be solved effectively.
I must appreciate that all these instruments have been put across at both National and international levels to advocate for the human rights for women and men. The unfortunate part of this is that the instruments are not followed. Many times, women have been denied rights to fair hearing in courts of Law, no equal rights to resource ownership like land and opportunities for employment for instance 2/3 of the work is done by women but they only take a share of 10% of the world’s income and only 1% of the world’s property like land is for women and the rest is for men. Therefore, their integration in the development process does not mean that their concerns have been worked on.
Gender based domestic violence; "Marriage Law" is to stress the principle of equality between men and women, and is targeted to complete the articles of prohibition of domestic violence and bigamy which is conducive to women's rights. Uganda for example has worked hard to bring in place the domestic relations bill which is expect to curb all the vices in marriages.

















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